DSB Diagram -- Seeking Consensus

Scott, This is per your request for some reading on advection. It includes a couple of references, my take and some stuff on denitrification as well. It's from a post of mine(update with a few edits) on another thread.

TheTerminology:

Advection: predominantly horizontal current and the wave action it produces as it encounters(an) obstruction(s)in it's path as well as the resulting "endo upwelling" under the obstruction. The upwelling occurs directly under the obstruction in a mirror image of it's footprint and height. At a horizontal flow rate of 10cm per second the endo upwelling will occur at a rate of 1cm per hour in the model presented by Sprung and Delbeek. The upwelling also results in water being pulled down .

Sprung and Delbbek use the term advection to describe this phenomenon as do Heutel and Rausch in their research(2). . Esoteric interpretations of discipline specific claims to specific terminology wether they be from engineering, meteorology ,chemistry etc . notwithstanding, I'll stick with them since they represent fields more closely related to reef keeping.

Diffusion: for the purposes of this discussion is the movement of molecules in water toward equilibrium. Some might call this convection but again , I'll use the terminology most commonly used in reef keeping literature.

Nitrification: the aerobic activity of autotrophic bacteria(those that can use inorganic carbon such as bi carbonate and CO2/carbonic acid)in oxic and hypoxic areas to convert decaying material to ammonia and nitrite and coenzymes such as adenosine triphosphate which they use for energy transfer to enable life functions including cell division.

Denitrification: the anaerobic activity of of heterotrphic bacteria(those that need organic carbon for energy) in hypoxic and near anoxic areas to convert nitrate to free nitrogen gas and coenzymes.

Faculative bacteria (those that can use either organic or non organic carbon for energy ) likely also play a role in both nitrification and denitrification.

Applications:

Trickle filters or towers : support high oxygen ,oxic areas and thus produce nitrate as an end product since they do not support anaerobic activity by heterotrophic bacteria. These bacteria will use the oxygen and have no need to spend extra energy to t strip it from nitrate


Deep live sand beds,generally over 4 inches deep as well as live rock can include : oxic , hypoxic and anoxic areas. Both autotrophic and heterotrophic bacteria can flourish in and on them. However, the heterotrophs need a source of organic carbon for energy and coenzme production. The autotrophs do fine with non organic carbon sources. So the deep sand bed needs a supply of organic material(dissolved or undisolved ) for phosphorous, nitrogen and carbon to keep the heterotrophs that use the nitrate viable. Obviously, it also needs a supply of nitrate. The bed (or rock) is fed by the water that moves through it via advection and the channeling and transport activity of benthic fuana(bioagitation). Diffusion supports the equilibriation of organic carbon molecules and nitrates throughout the water.

A deep sand bed without the proper amount of water movement to bring in the needed organic carbon and nitrate will not function well as a denitrifier. On the other hand too much fluidization will bring in too much oxygen. On the third hand, too much carbon and too little nitrate will set the stage for the bacteria to turn to SO4 for the oxygen they need with the potential for hydrogen sulfide formation as a by product. Hence, the caveat on dosing organic carbon when deep sand beds are in play . Although some have suggested seeding a deep bed with sulfur or vodka et al. as a means of sourcing an energy source in a deep bed. I think it's dangerous.

Again a functional deep sand bed needs a force(bioagitation and/ or sufficient water movement) to insure the movement of oxygen depleted water( stripped by autorphic and faculative bacteria)laden with nitrate and a source of phosphorus and organic carbon for the heterotrophic bacteria to thrive and reduce the nitrate .

A bed that is allowed to clog or pack down or is just too deep for things to pass down just wont do very much.Benthic fauna in a live bed can help to maintain viability through channeling activities and assist in transport of organic materials..

Diffusion is a relatively weak force and will not in my opinion provide enough material to promote denitrification.

Advection, can enhance the process multifold( as many as 50 fold see reference (2) putting more water in play in which diffusion can occur.

The study by Tonnen and Wee from the Advanced Aquarist Magazine:
http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2008/8/aafeature3
concludes:

Each sediment-based aquarium design appeared capable of handling nutrient inputs up to 0.5 mg / L / day of NH4+ - which is equivalent to a well-stocked reef aquarium. At this input level, final concentrations of ammonia, nitrite and nitrate did not differ significantly among aquaria 1) with or without plenums, 2) containing deep (9.0 cm) or shallow (2.5cm) sediments, or 3) containing coarse (2.0mm) or fine (0.2mm) mean particle sizes."

So for my money ,deep (9inches or more of sand ) buckets with limited surface area, brisk flow to avoid detritus accumulation and no wave action except perhaps at the perimeter will not denitrify to any significant degree beyond the first few inches if that.

Live deep beds within a display with live rock will do better if the sand is kept live which may require periodic replenishment with fresh live sand..

These beds may also benefit from the effects of advection as the upwelling water passes upward under and through live rock. It seems ensuring sand is under the rock will enhance the process. Issues with the stability of the stack could be handled with pylon pvc structures under the rock backfilled with sand. I have these on my 7 year old in tank deep sand bed.

A remote deep sand bed (ie not in the display, unlit with limited bioagitation) can be more productive in denitrification with a larger surface area since even the small sand grains cause advective wave action and upwelling. This enhanced waer movement can move dissloved organic matter . Placing live rock on a bed can enhance it's effectivenes as a denitrifier since the effects of advection will enhance water movement under the rock to a depth equal to the height of the submerged rock per the model presented by Sprung and Delbeek.It will also enhance movement of water up and into the rock.

Nitrate removal can be accomplished by a number of means other than the substratum or rock such as: coil denitrifiers, carbon fed denitriers, sulfur denitrifiers,macroalgae refugia,carbon dosing , the use of granular activated carbon to remove organic material before it turns to nitrate as well as strong skimming and perhaps to some extent ozone in conjunction with granulated activated carbon.

Refernces:

(1)Sprung and Delbeek, The Reef Aquarium Vol 3.
(2)http://aslo.org/lo/toc/vol_48/issue_4/1674.pdf
(3)http://www2.hawaii.edu/~toonen/files/Toonen-Wee-05.pdf
 
Tom(WaterKeeper)

I agree that aerobic bacterial activity(nitrification) is sustainable at depths greater than 1.5 inches with bioagitation and/ or sufficient advection.
I also take note of the Toonen-Wee study which demonstrated that denitrification occurred at very shallow depths and removed nutrients equivalent to a reef tank's typical load when there was no bioagitation .
So, as I noted a 4 inch bed will likely do well if it's kept alive, perhaps even better than a shallower one . However, I do think a shallower bed will denitrify significantly and will need less maintenance to insure the continuos viability of benthic fauna. Here perhaps we see it a bit differently.. BTW I also think the gradients you speak of can go both up and down depending on the forces in play (bioagitation and /or advection) to move the water and the POM and DOM.

I never heard of a "desufinator". Do you hold a patent on it? lol

I've never used a coil denitrator but have used a sulfur denitrator built per the diy thread and Reefkeeping Magazine specs. It can sustain significant flow while still reducing nitrate. Effluent flow rates can go up to 5x the volume of sulfur in the rector ( which is similar to a calcium reactor in design). In my case with 3 liters of sulfur in the reactor tube I was able to process 15 liters per hour or about 92 gallons per day output of 0 nitrate water. . There was no hydrogen sulfide until several days after it ran down the nitrate to 0 in the 550 gallon system feeding it. Then it was a choice to take it off line or reduce the amount of sulfur in an effort to balance nitrate inputs with the reactor output. I took it off line and the nitrates are holding after 2mos at 2.5ppm with sand beds , macro refugia and a small amount of carbon dosing.
 
Tom?Waterkeeper.

FYI. Here is the formula for the sulfur denitrator per Randy's article on nitrate:

2H20 + 5S + 6NO3 -> 3N2 +5SO4 +4H+. Or water plus sulfur plus nitrate = free nitrogen plus sulfate plus hydrogen. No H2S(hydrogen sulfide) is produced when nitrate is avavilable.
 
<a href=showthread.php?s=&postid=15124481#post15124481 target=_blank>Originally posted</a> by tmz
Glad you liked it.
I think shallow beds do unquestionably perform denitrification. [/QUOTE


I agree, and after reading that article it seemed to show at least some proof of it.
Click to expand...
 
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ammoni(a/um). :lol:

I tend to agree with jenglish (about a few things now ;)) that newbs will better recognize ammonia, because that is what is written on the test kits. But I do think I can include another foot note in the text that explains a bit about the ammonium. Can someone offer me a decent pat statement for that purpose?

I have to say tho, It goes against my better judgement to include foot notes. I once read a book that included a parenthetical statement within a parenthetical statement within a foot note. I stopped reading at exactly that point, for it had offended my sensibilities. I do see the advantage to including some of these more technical details for the purposes of educating newbies, but I don't want to drive them away either. Not everyone interested in knowing more about a DSB is interested in understanding all the nuanced chemistry.

I know I've given you all a hard time, but I have appreciated the help. I'm mostly just trying to call you out, as it were. I occasionally find it useful to beat better answers out of people. :D

TMZ, you have been very helpful.

Capn, you have also been helpful. I think you're on to the best resolution for the anoxic confusion. We should simply speak in terms of "nitrifying", "denitrifying", and "reducing" bacteria, as much as possible. That could go a long way in keeping us all on the same page.

Waterkeeper, tell me what to say about ammonium.

I'll have a second draft soon.
 
2nd draft

2nd draft

A deep sand bed, or DSB for short, can be a useful addition to a saltwater aquarium, refugium, or even a remote bin. Tho based on a remarkably simple idea, DSB discussions can become enormously complex. The purpose of this article is to offer a generalized understanding of the concepts involved and terminology used. This is by no means the final word on the DSB, nor does it advocate anything more than educating the reader, but it can also serve as a guide to a more serious investigation.

There are several potential benefits and possible drawbacks to having a DSB. Often their purpose is for nitrate reduction, but that is not their only purpose, nor is a DSB the only means for achieving that goal. Not everyone uses a DSB and many have tried them with poor results. Some do use a DSB and have reported good results for a decade or more. There is substantial disagreement as to why some succeed and others fail. Some general rules of thumb have evolved over the years, but they should not be mistaken for definitive science. What this article attempts to explain is that which is fact, known, and understood. Beyond that, it is up to the reader to draw their own conclusions and decide for themselves.

To better understand the anatomy of a deep sand bed, let us first look at a shallow sand bed.

SSB.jpg


In all aquariums, decomposition is largely performed by bacteria, but the process can be facilitated by the presence of a "clean up crew". Detritus (waste) and other organic matter is first eaten by the "clean up crew" of crabs, stars, hermits, and snails. The smaller particulates they produce are then further broken down by copepods, other benthic organisms, and worms. The remaining dissolved organics are then converted by the "nitrifying" bacteria, from ammonia* (toxic), to nitrite (less toxic), to nitrate (least toxic). All of this takes place within a layer of sand oxygenated by moving water, termed oxic, and the bacteria there require oxygen to function, termed aerobic. In a shallow sand bed this is where the process ends. The nitrate simply accumulates in the water column to be removed by ritual water change.

In a deep sand bed, there are another type of bacteria, termed anaerobic, that require a depleted oxygen environment to function. Among these are the "denitrifying" bacteria that will convert toxic nitrate into beneficial nitrogen. The primary objective of a DSB is to provide a layer of very low oxygen, termed hypoxic, where bacteria can function anaerobically. The potential harm is in creating a layer completely devoid of oxygen, termed anoxic, where "reducing" bacteria can convert sulfate into hydrogen sulfide (rotten egg smell). This and other toxins can dangerously accumulate in a sand bed that is too deep or not properly maintained.

DSB.jpg


It is important to point out that the full benefits and challenges surrounding deep sand beds are still a matter of some debate and the conversation is often confused by competing terminology. Because denitrification only occurs at the very bottom of the hypoxic layer, environmentalists often borrow the term anoxic (labeled in blue) to mean extremely hypoxic. This of course requires another borrowed term, anaerobic (labeled in blue), to mean truly anoxic.**

Here are some general rules of thumb for maintaining a DSB. It should be at least four inches deep but no more than six, consisting mostly of fine grains, sometimes called "oolite" or "sugar-fine". Keep the benthic and worm populations healthy by avoiding Sand-Sifting stars, most crabs, and limiting hermits. If possible and as needed, occasionally rejuvenate these populations with fresh liverock or true livesand from a well established aquarium, as this may be key to long term success. The sand bed should either not be disrupted, or otherwise done so very gently. Brittle and baby stars, as well as Nassarius and Cerith snails, provide a slow and beneficial agitation of the sand, but vacuuming of the sand should be performed with great care, if performed at all. Remember, a deep sand bed is a living thing that must be kept in careful balance.

General Rules of Thumb

- 4" to 6"; fine-grain; do not disturb or disturb with care.
- Helpful: Brittle & baby stars, Nassarius & Cerith snails.
- Unhelpful: Sand-Sifting stars, most crabs, too many hermits.
- Rejuvenate worm and benthic populations for long term success.

* Both ammonia (NH3) and ammonium (NH4) are present and inversely proportional. Their ratio is pH dependant and as pH rises, so does ammonia.

** Why anaerobic for truly anoxic? As it happens, the denitrifying bacteria are not truly anaerobic, but are aerobic bacteria functioning in an anaerobic manner, thus environmentalists call them "facultative" (labeled in blue). Only the "reducing" bacteria in the truly anoxic layer are truly anaerobic, thus environmentalists have borrowed the term anaerobic to mean truly anoxic.
 
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Honestly, the more I read it, the more I hate it. Worst of all, it doesn't feel newbie friendly. Narg...

It was originally not my intent to write any text at all. I find most articles on this subject hopelessly dull. I fear this is no exception.

The foot notes should have been my first clue.

 :hammer:
:spin2:
 
I don't think you have to say anything about ammonium. It's just t not toxic as the chart shows it to be. Just change ammonium to Ammonia(NH3/4) which represents both free ammonia and ammonium and it will be fine, in my opinion.
 
Looked at the chart again. Just change theNH 4 arrow to NH3/4. Change the box to ammonia . You can skip the footnote on it too. The footnote on bacteria isn't quite correct and you probably don't need it either.
I'd also drop faculative bacteria from the chart.
 
One more note re; ammonia/ammonium. Ammonium is often referred to as ionized ammonia because of the positive charge it carries from the extra H+ion. So Ammonia(NH3/4) covers it nicely.

It is the neutrality of NH3 that makes it easier for it to pass through the membranes of organisms and thus it's toxicity relative to ammonium which carries a + charge and does not pass through memebranes well.
 
I'll change it to ammonia in the legend and NH3/4 on the arrow, but that could require making all the arrow text smaller.

I have no problem dropping both foot notes, but I do wish to keep "facultative" on the diagram. It is a term I see often enough that newbies should know to which bacteria it refers.
 
Ok but facualtive bacteria are bacteria that function under aerobic and anaerobic conditions so the inclusion of the term in only the hypoxic denitrifying function confuses me.
 
<a href=showthread.php?s=&postid=15140555#post15140555 target=_blank>Originally posted</a> by Whys
Honestly, the more I read it, the more I hate it. Worst of all, it doesn't feel newbie friendly. Narg...

It was originally not my intent to write any text at all. I find most articles on this subject hopelessly dull. I fear this is no exception.

The foot notes should have been my first clue.

 :hammer:
:spin2:
Click to expand...


Whys--its a great read really.

Just divide the work up an go from simple to more detailed

ESSENTIAL INFORMATION
eg
diagram
some explanation
___________________________________________
FOR THOSE THAT WISH TO READ FURTHER
 
3rd draft

3rd draft

A deep sand bed, or DSB for short, can be a useful addition to a saltwater aquarium, refugium, or even a remote bin. Tho based on a remarkably simple idea, DSB discussions can become enormously complex. The purpose of this article is to offer a generalized understanding of the core concepts and terminology used. This is by no means the final word on the DSB, nor does it advocate anything more than educating the reader, but it can also serve as a guide to a more serious investigation.

There are several potential benefits and possible drawbacks to having a DSB. Most often their purpose is for nitrate reduction, so that is this article's focus, but that is not their only purpose, nor is a DSB the only means for achieving that goal. Not everyone uses a DSB and many have tried them with poor results. Some do use a DSB and have reported good results for a decade or more. There is substantial disagreement as to why some succeed and others fail. Over the years, some general rules of thumb have evolved, but they should not be mistaken for definitive science. It is up to the reader to draw their own conclusions.

To better understand the anatomy of a deep sand bed, let us first look at a shallow sand bed, or SSB for short.

SSB.jpg


- Oxic: oxygenated.
- Aerobic: requires oxygen to function.
- Nitrifying: converts ammonia into nitrate.

In all aquariums, decomposition is largely performed by bacteria, but the process can be facilitated by the presence of a "clean up crew", or CUC for short. Detritus (waste) and other organic matter is first eaten by the CUC of crabs, stars, hermits, and snails. The smaller particulates they produce are then further broken down by copepods, other benthic organisms, and worms. The remaining dissolved organics are then converted by the "nitrifying" bacteria, from ammonia (toxic), to nitrite (less toxic), to nitrate (least toxic). All of this takes place within a layer of sand oxygenated by moving water, termed oxic, and the bacteria there require oxygen to function, termed aerobic. In a shallow sand bed this is where the process ends. The nitrate simply accumulates in the water column to be removed by ritual water change.

In a deep sand bed, there are another type of bacteria, termed anaerobic, that require a depleted oxygen environment to function. Among these are the "denitrifying" bacteria that will convert toxic nitrate into beneficial nitrogen. The primary objective of a DSB is to provide a layer of very low oxygen, termed hypoxic, where bacteria can function anaerobically. The potential harm is in creating a layer completely devoid of oxygen, termed anoxic, where "reducing" bacteria can convert sulfate into hydrogen sulfide (rotten egg smell). This and other toxins can dangerously accumulate in a sand bed that is too deep or not properly maintained.

DSB.jpg


- Benthic: ???
- Hypoxic: low oxygen.
- Anoxic: no oxygen.
- Anaerobic: requires depleted oxygen to function.
- Denitrifying: converts nitrate into nitrogen.

The full benefits and challenges surrounding deep sand beds are still a matter of some debate and it is important to point out that the conversation is often confused by competing terminology. Because denitrification only occurs at the very bottom of the hypoxic layer, environmentalists often borrow the term anoxic (labeled in blue) to mean extremely hypoxic. This of course requires another borrowed term, anaerobic (labeled in blue), to mean truly anoxic. Both the nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria are sometimes referred to as facultative because they are often the same bacteria functioning in a different manner.

Here are some general rules of thumb for maintaining a DSB. It should be at least four inches deep but no more than six, consisting mostly of fine grains, sometimes called "oolite" or "sugar-fine". Keep the benthic and worm populations healthy by avoiding Sand-Sifting stars, most crabs, and limiting hermits. If possible and as needed, occasionally rejuvenate these populations with fresh liverock or true livesand from a well established aquarium, as this may be key to long term success. The sand bed should either not be disrupted, or otherwise done so very gently. Brittle and baby stars, as well as Nassarius and Cerith snails, provide a slow and beneficial agitation of the sand, but vacuuming of the sand should be performed with great care, if performed at all. Remember, a deep sand bed is a living thing that must be kept in careful balance.

General Rules of Thumb

- 4" to 6"; fine-grain; do not disturb or disturb with care.
- Helpful: Brittle & baby stars, Nassarius & Cerith snails.
- Unhelpful: Sand-Sifting stars, most crabs, too many hermits.
- Rejuvenate benthic and worm populations for long term success.
 
Last edited:
Thought I answered that earlier. It's in the water just like chloride, sodium, magnesium calcium etc. There are 2700ppm in natural salt water . It's the 3rd highest volume in the water after chloride 19,000ppm and sodium 10,500ppm. Fourth is magnesium at 1280 ppm. In an aquarium ,for the most part it comes in as part of the salt mix. . These big 4 make up 96% of the the elements in the water. The other 4% includes calcium, carbonate/bicarbonate and all the minor and trace elements.
 
You might have Tom, I tend to mentally filter information overload. :)

Is sulfate necessary somehow? Why include it in the salt mix? Why not remove it with water purification?
 
<a href=showthread.php?s=&postid=15148137#post15148137 target=_blank>Originally posted</a> by Whys
I need a good definition/description for benthic. Capn?
Click to expand...

The benthic zone is the ecological region at the lowest level of a body of water such as an ocean or a lake, including the sediment surface and some sub-surface layers.

Benthos are the organisms which live on, in, or near the seabed, also known as the benthic zone. the abyssal depths.

Because light does not penetrate very deep ocean-water, the energy source for deep benthic ecosystems is often organic matter from higher up in the water column which drifts down to the depths. This dead and decaying matter sustains the benthic food chain; most organisms in the benthic zone are scavengers or detritivores.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthic
 
Final draft

Final draft

Here it is. Please read carefully and let me know of any technical errors. Will be posting this in the newbie forum for final feedback soon. If you don't wish for you name to appear in the credits, please say so. Thanks again for all your help everyone. :)

----------------------------------------


Deep Sand Bed -- Anatomy & Terminology

A deep sand bed, or DSB for short, can be a useful addition to a saltwater aquarium, refugium, or even a remote bin. Tho based on a remarkably simple idea, DSB discussions can become enormously complex. The purpose of this article is to offer a generalized understanding of the core concepts and specific terminology. This is by no means the final word on the DSB, nor does it advocate anything more than educating the reader, but it can also serve as a guide to a more serious investigation.

There are several potential benefits and possible drawbacks to having a DSB. Most often their purpose is for nitrate reduction, so that is this article's focus, but that is not their only purpose, nor is a DSB the only means for achieving that goal. Not everyone uses a DSB and many have tried them with poor results. Some do use a DSB and have reported good results for a decade or more. There is substantial disagreement as to why some succeed and others fail. Over the years, some general rules of thumb have evolved, but they should not be mistaken for definitive science. It is up to the reader to draw their own conclusions.

To better understand the anatomy of a deep sand bed, let us first look at a shallow sand bed, or SSB for short.

SSB.jpg


- Oxic: oxygenated.
- Aerobic: requires oxygen to function.
- Nitrifying: converts ammonia into nitrate.

In all aquariums, decomposition is largely performed by bacteria, but the process can be facilitated by the presence of a "clean up crew", or CUC for short. Detritus (waste) and other organic matter is first eaten by the CUC of crabs, stars, hermits, and snails. The smaller particulates they produce are then further broken down by copepods, other benthic organisms, and worms. The remaining dissolved organics are then converted by the "nitrifying" bacteria, from ammonia (toxic), to nitrite (less toxic), to nitrate (least toxic). All of this takes place within a layer of sand oxygenated by moving water, termed oxic, and the bacteria there require oxygen to function, termed aerobic. In a shallow sand bed this is where the process ends. The nitrate simply accumulates in the water column to be removed by ritual water change.

In a deep sand bed, there are another type of bacteria, termed anaerobic, that require a depleted oxygen environment to function. Among these are the "denitrifying" bacteria that convert toxic nitrate into beneficial nitrogen. The primary objective of a DSB is to provide a layer of very low oxygen, termed hypoxic, where bacteria can function anaerobically. The potential harm is in creating a layer completely devoid of oxygen, termed anoxic, where "reducing" bacteria can convert sulfate into hydrogen sulfide (rotten egg smell). This and other toxins can dangerously accumulate in a sand bed that is too deep or not properly maintained.

The prevailing wisdom is that the worms and benthic organisms are vital to maintaining a healthy DSB. In addition to cleaning the sand, it is believed their gentle agitation of the bed helps prevent truly anoxic conditions.

DSB.jpg


- Benthic: surface and near sub-surface sand bed layer.
- Hypoxic: low oxygen.
- Anoxic: no oxygen.
- Anaerobic: requires depleted oxygen to function.
- Denitrifying: converts nitrate into nitrogen.

The full benefits and challenges surrounding deep sand beds are still a matter of some debate, so it is important to point out that the conversation is often confused by competing terminology. Environmentalists often borrow the term anoxic (labeled in blue) to mean extremely hypoxic, and anaerobic (labeled in blue) to mean truly anoxic. Also, both the nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria can be referred to as facultative.

Here are some general rules of thumb for maintaining a DSB. It should be at least four inches deep but no more than six, consisting mostly of fine grains, sometimes called "oolite" or "sugar-fine". Keep the benthic and worm populations healthy by avoiding Sand-Sifting stars, most crabs, and limiting hermits. Occasionally rejuvenate these populations with fresh liverock or true livesand from a well established aquarium, as this may be key to long term success. The sand bed should only be disrupted very gently over time. Brittle and baby stars, as well as Nassarius and Cerith snails, provide a slow and beneficial agitation of the sand, but vacuuming should be performed with great care, if performed at all. Remember, a deep sand bed is a living thing that must be kept in careful balance.

General Rules of Thumb

- 4" to 6"; fine-grain; do not disturb or disturb with care.
- Helpful: Brittle & baby stars, Nassarius & Cerith snails.
- Unhelpful: Sand-Sifting stars, most crabs, too many hermits.
- Rejuvenate benthic and worm populations for long term success.


----------------------------------------
Article & Diagrams by: Whys. The following credits, listed in alphabetical order, are for collaborative work only and should not be assumed as endorsements of this article. Technical contributions: capn_hylinur, fsn77, jenglish, MattL, tmz, WaterKeeper. Additional peer review: Biologist, luther1200, jasonrp104, Nanook, rishma, Sisterlimonpot, thegrun, therealfatman.
 
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